USING THE GLASS CEILING ANALOGY TO UNDERSTAND BARRIERS FACING WOMEN IN POLITICS

While recently pondering about the limitations women face in attaining high level managerial positions in the workplace, I came across the popular phrase ‘Glass Ceiling Effects’-  Which can be defined as an  invisible upper limit in corporations and other organizations, above which it is difficult or impossible for women to rise in the ranks.

In trying to understand this term and skimming over several literature, and looking at the recent political challenges facing women in Egypt my thought patterns seem to be timely. I began to develop an opinion that there is a possibility that we can use the glass ceiling theory to understand and explain the challenges, barriers and difficulties women encounter towards being represented politically in parliament, ministerial, presidential or top government positions. An Inter- Parliamentary Union survey of 187 women politicians from 65 countries examined the difficulties faced by women in politics.

• One of the women’s primary concerns was to reconcile political life with family commitments. Almost all of the respondents admitted to having difficulties balancing family responsibilities with a useful and effective political life. The report noted that although day care for small children was widely available to women parliamentarians in Nordic countries, this was not always the case in other parts of the world.
• Eighty per cent of the respondent’s considered that the increasing representation of women in politics had renewed public trust in politics, and that the public recognized that women worked hard and wanted to achieve concrete results.
• As of October 2003, the global average for women representatives in national parliaments stood at 15.2 per cent, with 15.5 per cent in the single or lower house and 13.9 percent in the upper house or senate compared with 13 per cent, 13.4 per cent and 10.9 per cent respectively in 1999.
• Regionally, women held 17.7 per cent of seats in Europe, 15.5 per cent in Asia, 18.4 per cent in America, 14.9 per cent in Sub- Saharan Africa, 12.1 per cent in the Pacific, and 6.0 per cent in the Arab States.
• Scandinavian countered still led the world with the highest share of women holding lower house parliamentary seats. In Sweden, women hold 45 per cent, in Denmark 38 per cent, in Finland 37 per cent and in Norway 36 per cent.
• Increasingly, women are filling cabinet posts in what have been considered male domains. As of November 2003, there were 20 women ministers in foreign affairs, nine in defence and security, and 19 in finance.
• The quota system is an affirmative action tool intended to ensure that women constitute a critical minority of at least 30 to 40 per cent on decision – making bodies.

Having read some materials, I particularly found it interesting that in the United States of America Congress, women experienced barriers and felt that they were not well integrated. For a country that would normally boast to be a liberal democracy, I considered this weighty- and almost meaning that there is still a long way to go in this journey. Hence I began to appreciate that the current challenges facing women in Islamic countries such as Egypt, although in a worse condition- are not peculiar to them alone- this is a global anomaly. Although I am sympathetic to the protesting, injuries and the death of some innocent women in Egypt, I do not believe that these protests may necessarily solve the problem or avail any dramatic changes.  I do understand that their statistics in this regard is considerably lower than most regions.

Hence, putting my thoughts into perspective, the recent challenges encountered by women in Egypt should awaken us (gender focused groups, international organisations, authorities in government etc) to the fact that women all over the world continue to be under – represented, marginalized and relegated. I would suggest a more scholarly approach to understanding why women in Nordic Countries have experienced a higher measure of success in this area than other countries and why countries that have professed liberal doctrines have not achieve an equal representation- are these problems of religious or traditional origin or is it the women who are actually reluctant to support other women or even take up these positions? Maybe the glass ceiling theory would help to further understand the barriers women face in politics.

On another note, although statistics would show that in Nordic countries, women make up about half of the cabinet member, 25 percent in the UK and about a third of top European Union commissioners are women (Alvesson and Billing, 2009), these are all positive numbers, but the reality still remains that there is a low representation, so I would describe these numbers as a pacifier and a form of false hope to create a sense of progress.  Making up about half is not half, 25 per cent should not be celebrated, let alone one third. Is it ambitious to expect a 50/ 50?

In conclusion, some materials have always noted that societies hold with high regard and value more representation of women in top political positions. Despite the favourable disposition why then are achieving an equal equation between men and women a challenging, complex, non-straight forward mission and objective to achieve. We may want to also consider the use of the ‘Glass Ceiling ‘analogy to understand these challenges.  May be we can gain more insight that would provide more solutions and save more lives.

By: Ulari Maduekwe

References:

Palmer, Barbara and Simon, Dennis (2011) Breaking the Political Glass Ceiling – Women and Congressional Elections (2ND Editionnd

Alvesson, Mats and Billing Due Yvonne (2009) Understanding Gender and Organizations

http://www.forbes.com/2006/03/07/glass-ceiling-opportunities--cx_hc_0308glass.html

http://www.ilo.org/dyn/gender/docs/RES/292/f267981337  http://www.completecampaigns.com/article.asp?articleid=102

HOW HAVE NIGERIAN AUTHORITIES RESPONDED WHEN VIOLENT AGAINST WOMEN ISSUES WERE REPORTED TO THEM?

"Violence against women both violates and impairs or nullifies the enjoyment by women of their human rights and fundamental freedoms... In all societies, to a greater or lesser degree, women and girls are subjected to physical, sexual and psychological abuse that cuts across lines of income, class and culture."

—Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, paragraph 112

Violence can be defined as an exercise of physical force usually done with the intention to hurt emotionally or physically, destroy and inflict injuries on the victim. Anyone can be a victim of violence but for the purpose of this discussion, the focus is on Violence against Women (VAW) and a look at the ways the Nigerian authorities have responded. Unfortunately, the statistics of such cases and the consequences of violence such as death or permanent body impairments, in addition to the fact that violence against anyone is an act of injustice to any human; has led to a wide interest and advocacy for a reduction in these cases of violence and legislative punitive measures to punish offenders.

According to Heise (2004) Violence against women come in various stages in their lives,

• Prenatal Stage - Prenatal sex selection, battering during pregnancy, coerced pregnancy.
• Infancy – Female infanticide, emotional and physical abuse, differential access to food and medical care.
• Childhood – Genital cutting, incest and sexual abuse, differential access to food and medical care.
• Adolescence- Dating and courtship violence, economically coerced sex, sexual abuse in the workplace, rape, sexual harassment, forced prostitution.
• Reproductive- Abuse of women by intimate partners, marital rape, dowry abuse and murders, partner homicide, psychological abuse, sexual abuse in the workplace, sexual harassment , rape, abuse of women with disabilities.
• Old age- Abuse of widows, elder abuse (which affects mostly women).

The issue of the advancement of women's rights has concerned the United Nations since the Organization's founding. Yet the alarming global dimensions of female-targeted violence were not explicitly acknowledged by the international community until December 1993, when the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women.

Prior to this time, most Governments tended to regard violence against women largely as a private matter between individuals, and not as a pervasive human rights problem requiring State intervention. In view of the alarming growth in the number of cases of violence against women throughout the world, the Commission on Human Rights adopted resolution 1994/45 of 4 March 1994, in which it decided to appoint the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, including its causes and consequences. As a result of these steps, the problem of violence against women has been drawing increasing political attention (http://www.un.org/rights/ , 2011).

One of several key international groups that have sought to improve the rights of a woman is the Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women – CEDAW. CEDAW provides a practical blueprint for each country to achieve progress for women and girls. Providing opportunities for women and girls to learn, earn and participate in public decision-making helps reduce violence, alleviate poverty, build democracies and strengthen economies (http://www.cedaw2011.org). 

The Nigerian government ratification of Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women in 1985 should have theoretically implied that it is bound to fulfil all obligations stated in Article 2 -: States Parties condemn discrimination against women in its forms, agree to pursue by all appropriate means and without delay a policy of eliminating discrimination against women and to this end,, undertake: a. to embody the principle of the equality of men and women in their national constitutions or other appropriate legislation if not yet incorporated therein and to ensure, through law and other appropriate means, the practical realization of this principle; b. to adopt appropriate legislative and other measures, including sanctions where appropriate, prohibiting all discrimination against women; c. to establish legal protection of the rights of women on an equal basis with men and to ensure through competent national tribunals and other public institutions the effective protection of women against any act of discrimination; d. to refrain from engaging in any act or practice of discrimination against women and to ensure that public authorities and institutions shall act in conformity with this obligation; e. to take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women by any person, organization or enterprise; f. to take all appropriate measures, including legislation, to modify or abolish existing laws, regulations, customs and practices which constitute discrimination against women. g to repeal all national penal provisions which constitute discrimination against women. 

 Nonetheless, in practice this unfortunately is not the case as CEDAW has raised the concern since 2008, that the Nigerian government is not carrying out its obligations as required. By extension of this abnormality, the weak state of women’s rights in Nigeria has been attributed to the non – domestication of and non – implementation of CEDAW.

Amongst other notable efforts, with the support from the UN Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), Nigerian women launched campaign against gender violence. The program included legal and social services for victims and their families, sensitivity training for law enforcement and government officials and community based education activities aimed particularly at young people. This project was launched IN 1998 by UNIFEM and the Nigerian non – governmental Women’s Centre for Peace and Development, named; Social Advocacy Against Violence Against Women (SAAVAW) with funds from UNIFEM’s Trust Fund in Support of Actions to Eliminate Violence Against Women.

With reference to  CEDAW’ s  report in 2008, the following issues were highlighted , this was in  relation to how successful the government has been at incorporating key articles of the convention. This is captured against and in relation to violence against women.

Articles 3-4

Most of the socio- economic, legal, and political frameworks needed for the protection and promotion of women’s rights have not been effectively implemented. In early 2007, the National Assembly rejected the Bill for the domestication of CEDAW, which stands as the acid test for gender equality in Nigeria. This has put on hold the process of integrating CEDAW Convention as an integral part of the criminal justice and legal administrative system in Nigeria.   

Article 5

Gender stereotypes continued to be reinforced in Nigeria as series of the agents of socialisation such as the family, schools, churches, mosques, and the media have become custodians as well as disseminators of gender roles, stereotypes, prejudices and discriminatory cultures. Girls and boys grow up in Nigerian society to accept male superiority over female and the patriarchal structure has become unquestionable phenomenon. The Teachers, Religious Leaders, Parents, Police Officers and Artistes in Nigeria usually work to promote obnoxious customary beliefs and practices that violate the rights of women. Consequently, customary practices such as female genital mutilation, preference for male-child, and widowhood rites are still prevalent in most parts of Nigeria.  Gender stereotypes in Nigeria are further reinforced by lack of national legislations aimed at disabusing the mind of people of such stereotypes as well as specify the punishment for offenders.

Article 6

Trafficking and exploitation of women and children in Nigeria still go on because the Government only focus on the legal regulation and established an agency National Agency for Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP) to check the syndrome while the remote causes of trafficking and exploitation such as poverty, unemployment, Illiteracy, are yet to be seen as important indicators, and yet to be addressed.

Considering that this report was produced in 2008, the next question arises; have there been positive improvements or changes since then? Unfortunately this is not the case because a very recent incident in 2011 has come to reveal. In October 2011, a very worrying event and the most recent case of VAW occurred. A young female university student was gang raped. This rape incident was video taped. Typical of such events there was a widespread clamour for justice by several gender and human rights organisation, persuading the government and the legislative to take decisive actions and bring the offenders to the books.

As gathered from Daily Trust – National Newspaper, a meeting was held in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja, by key organisations and stakeholders to further discuss the issue of sexual violence as a result of this event and the disturbing and unsatisfactory manner in which the government and key authorities handled the act. The meeting was finalised with action plans to set up a task force that would create a secure avenue where cases of sexual violence can be reported without fear of stigmatisation or persecution. They also decided to develop a paper on sexual violence, which would engage with and sensitise lawmakers on the need to pass the Violence against Persons (VAPP) bill pending at the National Assembly.

As the saying goes “it’s a man’s world”, but I would have to note that there would be no man, if there was no woman”. Therefore there should be a critical reflection and social change in the country with regards to the importance of ensuring and appreciating that a woman’s safety and well-being amongst other important human necessities, is of primary concern to the Nigerian authorities.

In summary, although I appreciate that Violence against Women has witnessed a reduction over the years, as the advocacies have increased and more women have become more educated and financially empowered, hence are able to speak out (although it is still the case that there are some women who are economically empowered, yet experiencing violence in their relationships or workplace, and suffering silently as a result of the fear of social stigmatization). In addition, it is my opinion that Nigerian authorities have been more rhetorical than positively active towards ensuring that the right laws and legislatures are in existence to curb, correct and compensate cases of VAW Although, International bodies, Women organizations and non – governmental organizations, continue with passion and relentless spirits to direct and influence positive changes, their efforts over the years have witnessed minimal success and the issues still remain – weak laws and legislature to punish offenders and protect the victims, a closed system whereby victims are scared of the consequences of reporting because they would be socially stigmatized and abandoned, the measure of the violence they experience may increase as a result of their attempt to report these cases.  The way forward at the end, I suggest would be … more pressure, more advocacies, creating a whistle blowing system or organization where victims or witnesses can report to without the fear of being bullied or socially reprimanded, a more proactive government and less violence. Please share your opinions and suggestions!

By Ulari Fiona Maduekwe

Sources

Heise, L. 1994. Violence Against Women: The Hidden Health Burden. World Bank Discussion Paper. Washington. D.C. The World Bank

The Millennial Woman in the Nigerian context- opportunities and challenges

Written by Ulari Fiona Maduekwe

In a time when the role of a woman in the society continues to receive a mixed perception and opinion, dynamic changes and revolutionary breakthroughs, some women today cannot say that they have been ultimately released from the traditional patterns that restrict their success and happiness at home, in relationships and in the work place. Nonetheless, today’s reflections looks at the nature of the Millennial woman, who is she, what does she do and are there any of such women in Nigeria, if so; is there a close similarity between their opportunities and challenges with their peers in other countries. And how can they progress?

Millennial are a group of people defined by their birth dates. They are people who were born between 1977 and 1995. Nicknamed ‘Generation Why’ because of their questioning nature, they have benefitted from better parental attention than past generations and have more involved fathers.  Hence, they tend to have a different and more wilful understanding of gender roles in the homes, workplace and future expectations. The Millennial age range falls within the ages of 35 -17. The focus of this discussion is on Nigerian women within these age gap.

According to a survey on 1,000 women carried out by Accenture in the US on full time working women between the ages of 22 and 35 years. Nearly all 94 percent believed they could achieve a balance between a satisfying professional career and a gratifying personal life. 12 percent cited marriage, 19 percent maternity policies and 30 percent pay scales as barriers to their careers.

The question arises, if 94 percent of women in the US believe they can achieve a balance between a satisfying professional career and a gratifying personal life – are they just being overly positive or is it entirely true? Secondly, can this positive feedback be the case if the study is carried out in a Nigerian society. Are there any women who have withdrawn from pursing a professional career because they were afraid they would not get married or their husbands have threatened them to the confines of the domestic?  For the women that have gone against all odds and pursued their dreams are they any societal prices they have paid – are they divorced or separated, did they rise to top by succumbing to sexual harassment? What has been the implication of their actions on the lives of their children; did they lack any parental care? Finally, what is the level of acceptance? Have they been subjected to a trail of derogatory comments? Are they struggling with the confidence of accepting their dreams and finding an identity- mother, wife and profession? Is marriage the only criteria by which to judge their success in life as a woman?

As I ponder on these questions, I recognise the fact that like most young Nigerian women, I am a millennial woman; who questions everyday my goals to pursue a career path, who notes the comments I receive from male friends and female friends especially the “successfully married” when I mention my aspirations. These comments may have to a certain point limited the choices I have made. Please do not get me wrong, I admire the institution of marriage and family. I understand that there are several millennial women like me in the country who have aspired and overcome, but yet there are those who may have aspired, but did not overcome and whose dreams have been killed.

There have been progressive steps; more girl children are educated today. Nonetheless, the battle to limit the girl child has taken a dramatic turn, it now plays out in the mind, which expresses our fears, encourages our insecurities and increases our limitation. We may have been allowed to have career, but are they fulfilling, are we able to manage work and family? Have our statistics been confined to the dichotomies of certain career paths (banking and financial services, teaching, nursing etc) In addition, how do women manage to overcome the challenges of the funnel effect in organisations whereby the higher the position, the lesser the number of women in those positions. Thus, how do we progress?

At the moment, my answer would be for women who have achieved success to share their experiences and challenges, for those who may not have achieved this, please encourage other women, do not slight them or make derogatory statements (i.e. they have manipulated their way to top, how about thinking that they have earned it) Nigerian women should lighten the load and have more fun, find success, and make a difference even when the difference they make is unpopular. “Remember to always give. This is the thing that will make you grow.” -Elizabeth Taylor, e.g. support causes you believe in such as supporting organisations that seek to eradicate child/ human trafficking, go to the village and instead of taking the little maid as a help that would only assist in your household, educate the little girl and give her a future.

In conclusion, my reflections are just my thoughts, with the hope to ignite a progressive discussion.